Dissertations and Theses

Interpersonal Guilt Studies

• Survivor Guilt Among Breast Cancer Patients: Do Some Feel Guilty for Winning the Fight? Trena A. Wisher, MS (2020) abstract
• Empathy-based guilt and socioeconomic status: An empirical investigation of relationships, Kevin Wing Keung Choi (2018) abstract
• The Experience of Discrimination of LGBT Populations and Disclosure to Family, Siblings, and Community, Alexandra E. Keller (2017) abstract
• Mental health of athletes and the neurotransmitter, Aaron Grusonik (2016) abstract
• The relationship between interpersonal guilt and depression in Polish immigrants: Siblings as a mediating factor counteracting post-migratory guilt and depression, Katarzyna Kanska (2016) abstract
• The impact of guilt proneness on caregiver burden in adult children caregivers of their parents, Ashley M. Mezzasalma,(2016) abstract
• Grief and loss and its association with survivor guilt in Iranian immigrants, Parisa Shoja,(2016) abstract
• Relationship of Impostorism and Guilt on Belongingness among College Students, Melissa A. Nelson (2016) abstract
• The Role of Adult Attachment Style on the Grief Response in Survivors of Suicide, Mary Sooy (2016) abstract
• The Role of Moral Cognition and Emotions in Remitted Major Depressive Disorder, Clifford Workman (2016) abstract
• Gambling disorder and shame: Development of a new measure, David Joseph Velleman (2015) abstract
• Compassion, altruism, yoga-based contemplative practices and psychological well-being, Rachna K. Rangan, (2015) abstract
• Acculturation, Guilt, and Differentiation Among First Generation Iranian-American Women, Sara Badrtalei Sanchez (2015) abstract
• Effects of meditation practice on altruism, empathy, guilt, and depression among Theravada Buddhists, Winfred Chan Ark (2014) abstract
• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adult women: Personality and neurotransmitters as measured by the Neurotransmitter Attributes Questionnaire, Margaret Ann Schiltz, (2014) abstract
• Empathy, interpersonal guilt, and depression in Iranian immigrants, Marzie Forghany (2013) abstract
• Empathy-based guilt among Latino first-generation college students, Adrianna Gonzales Hooper (2013) abstract
• Friendship and Bipolar Disorder, Kirsten Ashley Helgager (2013) abstract
• How Personality Influences Compliance: The Power of the Individual, Jennifer Hurst (2013) abstract
• Guilt and early traumatic experiences: An investigation of empathy-based guilt in adult survivors of early parental deaths, Svetlana Alshvang (2012) abstract
• The role of guilt in the development of pro-environmental behavior, Manisha M. Sudindranath (2012) abstract
• When do we forgive? The role of apology and empathy-based guilt in facilitating forgiveness, Kirsten E. Acker, (2011) abstract
• The military and Facebook, Joanna Morgan (2010) abstract
• Psychosociocultural factors and the social and academic integration of Latino(a) college students, Arlene Velez-Galan (2010) abstract
• Coping with loss due to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Parents', spouses' and siblings' grief reactions, Laura Marie Cayan (2009) abstract
• Interpersonal guilt and college adjustment among first-generation college students, David C. Votruba (2008) abstract
• Examining the relationship between gender role conflict and interpersonal guilt in men, Timothy Ray Thomas (2008) abstract
• Survivor guilt in the African-American population, Robyn Cannon Pearl (2007) abstract
• Bearing witness: Workplace mobbing and the observer's quandary, Anna Shorenstein (2007) abstract
• Survivor guilt in the first-born mutual child in stepmother stepfamilies, Elizabeth Merrill (2007) abstract
• Community preparedness: A psychological portrait of the citizen responder, Jaclyn Beckmann Devine (2006) abstract
• Suicide survivor guilt: The relationship between interpersonal guilt and complicated grief in suicide bereavement, Jill Fischer (2006) abstract
• Vulnerability to distress and sexual orientation: A comparison of indicators of psychopathology in bisexual, homosexual, and heterosexual women, Sara J. Lieppe (2006) abstract
• Guilt, Shame, and Grief: An Empirical Study of Perinatal Bereavement, Peter Barr (2004) abstract
• Psychologists', psychiatrists' and other mental health professionals' use of psychoactive medication and therapy: The ongoing stigma connected to psychological problems and treatment, Karen Godfredsen (2004) abstract
• Unconscious guilt as an explanation for male genital exhibitionism, Bernard M. Marshall (2004) abstract
• Interpersonal guilt and self-defeating behavior of foster youth, Rebecca Murray (2004) abstract
• Sexual masochism, guilt, and the martyr mother phenomenon, Robert C. Steiner (2004) abstract
• The role of survivor guilt in a gay HIV-negative male therapist who treats a gay HIV-positive male client, Robert Andrew Vargas (2004) abstract
• Interpersonal guilt, spirituality, and religiosity: An empirical investigation of relationships, Elizabeth Joy Albertsen (2003) abstract
• An exploration of guilt in families with adolescent anorexia nervosa, Karena Meehan Berghold (2001) abstract
• The relationship between attachment patterns and guilt in the function of eating disorder symptoms: Can symptoms be proximity-seeking? Catherine A. Orzolek-Kronner (2001) abstract
• The measurement of sex role guilt in women: A pilot study, Evelyn Sida-Miccio (2001) abstract
• Guilt, shame, self-image disparity and neurosis, Bonny Joy Shapin (2000) abstract
• The effects of a cognitive-behavioral prevention program on social skills and interpersonal guilt: A study of delinquent adolescents, Courtney Alexandra Smith (1999) abstract
• Cultural values, ethnic identity, interpersonal guilt and shame: A comparison of Japanese-Americans and European-Americans , Suzanne Bri Asano (1998) abstract
• Reliability and Validity of an adolescent version of interpersonal guilt questionaire, Kathleen Anne Mulherin (1998) abstract
• Anger and depression among incarcerated juvenile deliquents: A pilot intervention, Jen Emily Tellier (1998) abstract
• Trauma and recidivism to prison: What's guilt got to do with it? Martha Sweezy
  Smith College School of Social Work (1997) abstract
• Multiple loss and grief in HIV positive and HIV negative gay men: Catastrophic survivor guilt, proneness to survivor guilt, and coping, Cida Jimenez-Sheppard (1997) abstract
• Interpersonal guilt and eating disorder symptomatology in college women, Natasha Anne Vilas (1996) abstract
• The relationship between attributional style and interpersonal guilt, Andrew R. Menaker (1995) abstract

Other Studies

• The relationship between online sexual compulsivity and shame, guilt, internalized homonegativity, depression, and perceived social support in men who have sex with men, Colin A. Baptie (2013) abstract
• Discrepancy from the ideal: An exploratory study of the associations between body image and social status, Alexandria Leedy (2006) abstract
• Positive psychology and psychotherapists, Charlotte Tilson (2006) abstract
• Pilot study of a new hospital suicide risk assessment measure, Emily Diamond (2004) abstract
• A dose-response study of control mastery therapy, Jane Leslie Weisbin (2003) abstract
• Sexual relationships between supervisors and supervisees during psychology graduate training, Leslie Wilson Caldwell (2002) abstract
• A survey of psychologists' attitudes, opinions, and clinical experiences with animal abuse, Pauline Nelson (2002) abstract
• The relationship between gender traits, sex role egalitarian attitudes, attachment styles, and life satisfaction, Joseph Martin Smith (1998) abstract

Other Papers

• The Relationship Between Religion, Spirituality, and Guilt, Ian Middelkamp (2008) abstract

Abstracts

Survivor Guilt Among Breast Cancer Patients: Do Some Feel Guilty for Winning the Fight? (MS)
Trena A. Wisher
Gardner-Webb University
2020
Abstract
The diagnosis of breast cancer leaves patients feeling a range of emotions beginning the day of diagnosis, lasting throughout the treatment process, and for months and years beyond. The purpose of this research study was to identify the presence of feelings of survivor guilt among those diagnosed with breast cancer. The literature review revealed breast cancer survivors can benefit from their own acknowledgment of feelings of survivor guilt, convey an emphasis from healthcare providers on patient recognition of feelings of guilt, and the consideration of treatment options for breast cancer survivors dealing with feelings of survivor guilt. Breast cancer survivors associated with a social media network will be presented with an opportunity to complete the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire. Upon completion of the questionnaire, responses will be reviewed and presented to the group via the social media network. Survey results will also be shared with Spartanburg Regional Survivorship Department. Introducing this new information to the target audience of breast cancer survivors will bring awareness to the presence of feelings of guilt among survivors that may be identified through the research method.

Empathy-based guilt and socioeconomic status: An empirical investigation of relationships
Kevin Wing Keung Choi
Wright Institute
2018
Abstract
Using archival data, this study investigated the relationship between SES, as measured by self-rated parental social class, empathy-based guilt, empathy, and depression, on a sample of 2,565 adults. It was hypothesized that individuals from low-SES backgrounds would report higher levels of empathy-based guilt, depression, and empathic concern for the welfare of others than those from higher SES backgrounds. Findings were only partially supported. Although respondents from working-class backgrounds reported significantly higher rates of survivor guilt, omnipotent responsibility guilt, depression, and empathic concern than respondents who were raised in lower middle- and middle-class backgrounds, no statistical significance was found on levels of empathic concern and empathy-based guilt between those from working-class backgrounds and those from upper class backgrounds. As predicted, a significant inverse relationship was found between survivor guilt and depression. Implications of this study are identified, and suggestions for future research are discussed.

The Experience of Discrimination of LGBT Populations and Disclosure to Family, Siblings, and Community
Alexandra E. Keller
Wright Institute
2017
Abstract
This study examined the experience of "coming out" (or disclosing) sexual orientation, with a particular focus on discrimination faced by the LGBT community, when they disclose sexual orientation to others in the world in which they live and work. One hundred and seventy one LGBT members from rural, urban and suburban United States and various parts of the world, representing a range of ethnic, religious, cultural and political backgrounds, took part in this anonymous online study that included both quantitative and qualitative data collection. This study created a picture of what they faced when they disclosed their orientation to family members, friends, colleagues, coworkers, supervisors and managers, health-care providers, and religious leaders. All participants responded to two measures, the LGBT Discrimination Survey (LDS) and the Coming Out Survey (COS), designed for this study in an effort to provide numerical indices of the experience, supporting the story told by 163 participants who completed the questions calling for narrative responses.

Prior studies and popular beliefs have suggested that people fail to "come out" or avoid self-disclosure because of internalized homophobia —a kind of self-hate based on hostile feelings about homosexuality, turned upon the self. In contrast, the results of this study demonstrate that people avoid self-disclosure of sexual orientation because of homophobia coming from others, rather than themselves. Coming out carries with it external dangers when the recipient of the disclosure feels hatred towards members of the LGBT community. The results of this study demonstrated that discrimination faced by LGBT participants was positively correlated with difficulty coming out. In addition, satisfaction with life was negatively correlated with both difficulty coming out and the experience of discrimination. Difficulty coming out and discrimination were both significantly, positively correlated with survivor guilt. Political beliefs of participants' family of origin were also significant predictors, with family conservatism significantly correlated with both discrimination and difficulty coming out. No significant results were found in regards to having other LGBT family members in terms of discrimination faced or difficulty disclosing sexual orientation.

Narratives in response to open-ended questions offered vivid examples of the dangers faced when disclosing sexual orientation. The impact of gender, family and ethnicity were noted. Participants discussed current debates on terminology, with some endorsing the use of the term "queer" and others finding the term too reminiscent of the violence inflicted upon the LGBT community in the past, when "queer" was used as a derogatory descriptor, suggesting that gay men and women were "odd" and that homosexuality was an identified ``mental illness" rather than a normal human variation. Together, the quantitative and qualitative data made clear that the decision to disclose orientation is necessarily based on objective external conditions, specifically, on the degree of hostility and homophobia perceived in the recipients of the disclosure. The need to assess the objective conditions, before deciding to disclose, was made evident in the narratives. The idea that everyone should come out and that self-disclosure is good for one's mental health –or even a "sign- of good mental health – is, in and of itself, a fallacy. According to the data from this study, coming out is a potentially dangerous process, and internalized homophobia is not a fitting explanation for why people fail to come out, or avoid coming out in many situations.

Mental health of athletes and the neurotransmitter
Aaron Grusonik
Wright Institute
2016
Abstract
In an anonymous online survey of 425 adult participants, relationships between self-identification as "active" or "not active" in sports or other physical activities, hours each day engaged in physical activity, and psychological factors (mental health symptoms, personality traits, and traits associated with serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmitter systems) were examined. Subjects identifying as "active" had significantly lower levels of depression, a healthier serotonin circuit, and higher extraversion and conscientiousness compared to those identifying as "not active." Time spent engaged in physical activity predicted significant outcomes for more psychological variables. Specifically, more hours of physical activity was associated with lower rates of depression, anxiety, attention deficit, and neuroticism, healthier levels of dopaminergic and serotonergic tone, and higher levels of extraversion and conscientiousness. Results are consistent with an evolutionary perspective on the potential benefits of an active lifestyle on psychological function.

The relationship between interpersonal guilt and depression in Polish immigrants: Siblings as a mediating factor counteracting post-migratory guilt and depression
Katarzyna Kanska
Wright Institute
2016
Abstract
Recent research has suggested that interpersonal guilt, when elevated and connected to pathogenic beliefs, as well as empathy play a significant role in depression (O'Connor, Berry, and Weiss, 1999; O'Connor, Berry, Lewis, Mulherin, and Crisostomo, 2007). To date, there is no empirical research investigating empathy-based interpersonal guilt and its relationship to depression among Polish immigrants in the U.S. The current study explored the effects of empathy distress and guilt related to the concern about harming others in the aforementioned population whose parents stayed behind in the country of origin. Additionally, this study examined whether the factor of having siblings living in and/or outside the homeland mediated the relationship between guilt and depression, as compared to singletons in Polish immigrants. One-hundred-and-twenty-five Polish immigrants living in the United States volunteered to participate in this study. The participants filled out an online survey consisting of the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67), the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale – Revised (CESD-R), and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). The results indicated that interpersonal guilt was significantly, positively associated with depression in this sample of Polish immigrants. Specifically, it was shown that people with higher survivor, omnipotent, and self-hate guilt were more likely to suffer from depression. Contrary to the prediction of one of the main hypotheses, the positive correlation between separation guilt and depression was only marginally significant, p=.083. The findings also suggested that depression was significantly, positively related to empathy distress as measured by IRI. Moreover, this study did not find any evidence supporting the hypothesis predicting the mediating role of having siblings on the relationship between interpersonal guilt and depression in this Polish immigrant group, as the only-child participants did not appear to have higher scores on the guilt and depression measures. Additional exploratory analyses were performed to examine the potential impact of other demographic variables on interpersonal guilt and depression. The findings were reported and discussed, along with the limitations of this study, clinical implications, and suggestions for future research in this area.

Relationship of Impostorism and Guilt on Belongingness among College Students
Melissa A. Nelson
Regent University
2016
Abstract
This study examined the role of interpersonal guilt and imposter phenomenon on belongingness among college students (N = 208). The purpose of the study was to determine the demographic differences in interpersonal guilt, imposterism, and belongingness as well as to identify the statistical relationship between constructs. Three ANOVAs were conducted to identify group differences; however, the study yielded no significant group differences across age, gender, ethnicity, and degree status. A multiple regression was conducted to identify the impact of interpersonal guilt and imposter phenomenon on belongingness. Results indicated imposter phenomenon contributed to 26.5% of the variance on belongingness while interpersonal guilt was not shown to significantly contribute to belongingness.

The Role of Moral Cognition and Emotions in Remitted Major Depressive Disorder
Clifford Workman
The University of Manchester (United Kingdom)
2016
Abstract
Background: The aim of this thesis was to investigate the relationship of moral cognition and emotions to the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD). Patients with MDD may experience excessive guilt or self-blaming biases despite recovery from the depressed state. Since guilt is a moral emotion thought to motivate altruistic behaviours, it has been hypothesized that elevated self-blame in MDD may result in pathological increases to altruism in some patients. The relationship of self-blame to altruistic choices in individuals with remitted MDD (rMDD), however, has not been established. Guilt has been shown to activate the subgenual cingulate and adjacent septal region (SCSR) which is of known importance to the pathophysiology of MDD. Since MDD is thought to arise from network-level dysfunctions, and moral cognition and emotions are hypothesized to emerge from network-level binding, investigating resting-state SCSR functional connectivity in rMDD patients and healthy control (HC) participants could reveal networks of potential relevance both to MDD and to moral cognition and emotions.Chapter 2: We investigated whether melancholic rMDD patients could be distinguished from non-melancholic and HC groups on the basis of resting-state functional connectivity to an SCSR seed region. Lower SCSR-amygdala connectivity distinguished the melancholic rMDD group from non-melancholic and HC groups.Chapter 3: We investigated whether patients who remained resilient to recurring depressive episodes were distinguishable from recurring episode MDD and HC groups on the basis of resting-state connectivity to an SCSR seed region. Lower interhemispheric SCSR connectivity distinguished the resilient MDD patients from the recurring episode MDD and HC groups.Chapter 4: We measured explicit and implicit preferences for social options with and without altruistic motivations relative to selfish options in the rMDD and HC groups during emotion priming to modulate feelings of guilt. The rMDD patients explicitly preferred prosocial options (i.e., social options and altruism directed towards friends or colleagues) less than HC participants. Regardless of group, guilt priming increased explicit and implicit preferences for altruism towards strangers.Chapter 5: We investigated whether explicit and/or implicit preferences for prosocial options during guilt priming were correlated with resting-state connectivity to an SCSR seed region, and whether this relationship could distinguish the rMDD and HC groups. Across all participants, implicit prosocial choice preference negatively correlated with connectivity between the SCSR and right temporoparietal junction (TPJ). The relationship of SCSR-TPJ connectivity to implicit preferences for social options and for altruism towards friends and colleagues was weaker in the rMDD group compared to the HC group, particularly for implicit altruism.Conclusions: We identified resting-state SCSR networks associated with vulnerability to melancholia and with resilience to recurring depressive episodes. Patients with rMDD explicitly preferred options entailing social withdrawal, a symptom associated with MDD vulnerability. Irrespective of group, guilt motivated altruism towards strangers but not friends and colleagues. Implicit prosociality was negatively associated with connectivity in a social agency network, and the comparatively weak relationships between connectivity and implicit choice preferences in rMDD patients may reflect a vulnerability factor for MDD.

The impact of guilt proneness on caregiver burden in adult children caregivers of their parents
Ashley M. Mezzasalma
Wright Institute
2016
Abstract
The current study attempted to bridge the gap in the literature between guilt and caregiver burden, with particular interest in better understanding how empathy-based guilt affected the development of caregiver burden in adult children caregivers of their parents. A sample of 67 adults currently providing care for one or more parents was recruited through advertisements on caregiver listserves and social media to complete a demographic questionnaire, The Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ), Zarit Burden Interview (ZBI), Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale Revised (CESD-R), The Big Five Inventory (BFI), Interpersonal Reactivity Index (iRI), and Home Care Task Checklist (HCTC). Results of this study indicated that caregiver's subjective report of both burden and depression was significantly correlated with a propensity to experience empathy-based guilt. The Survivor Guilt subscale of the IGQ accounted for the majority of the variance in caregiver's report of depression and subjective caregiver burden. In keeping with the larger body of caregiver burden literature, this study's fmdings suggest that the lens through which caregivers evaluate the demands of the caregiving experience, in this case empathy-based guilt, affects their ability to cope with these demands, which may lead to both caregiver burden and depression.

Grief and loss and its association with survivor guilt in Iranian immigrants
Parisa Shoja
Wright Institute
2016
Abstract
This study examines the role of survivor guilt in the anxiety and depression widely experienced by Iranian immigrants. Depression and anxiety it immigrants are often explained by the grief and loss that accompanies the migration process. While grief and loss are a common experience among immigrants. survivor guilt may also be a significant element that impacts the mental health of immigrant populations. Research suggests that survivor guilt is an unconscious process that plays a central role in symptoms of depression and anxiety in various populations and in various settings. In the present study, correlation and regression analyses were used to predict psychological symptoms (depression and anxiety) from both survivor guilt and grief and loss in a sample of 122 Iranian immigrants to the United States. Results demonstrate that survivor guilt in Iranian immigrants is strongly predictive of anxiety and depression, even when statistically adjusting for migratory grief and loss. Similar results were obtained for omnipotent responsibility guilt. a type of guilt closely associated with survivor guilt. These findings suggest that psychological factors other than grief and loss are significant in the immigrant experience of adjusting to migration.

The Role of Adult Attachment Style on the Grief Response in Survivors of Suicide
Mary Sooy
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
2016
Abstract
Suicide is the 10th leading cause of death in the United States, and accounts for over 38,000 deaths per year (Centers for Disease Control, 2012). For every person who commits suicide, there are approximately six to ten survivors left to cope with the loss of their loved one (Cerel, Maple, Aldrich, and van de Venne, 2013). Noteworthy consequences of survivorship include complicated grief, depression, and survivor guilt. Attachment theory suggests that during the grieving process, the nature of the survivor’s grief reaction may be greatly influenced by early attachment styles and may manifest in his or her adulthood, following the suicide (Stroebe, Abakoumkin, Stroebe, & Schut, 2011). Specifically, the theory proposes that securely attached individuals are better able to cope with the loss of a loved one and come to terms with the death more easily than those who are insecurely attached (Stroebe & Archer, 2013). Given the potential intensity of the grief response, survivors may experience complicated grief, a phenomenon described in the literature as exacerbated grief symptoms lasting longer than six months (Shear et al., 2011). To date, the extant literature is limited regarding the relationship between attachment styles, depression, complicated grief, and survivor guilt in survivors of suicide. An understanding of the relationship between survivors’ attachment styles and experience of complicated grief may (a) increase mental health clinicians’ awareness of the role of attachment in the development of depression, complicated grief, and survivor guilt; and (b) aid in the development of a framework for appropriate assessment, treatment, and long-term intervention among survivors of suicide.

Gambling disorder and shame: Development of a new measure
David Joseph Velleman
Wright Institute
2015
Abstract
This study sought to investigate the relationship of shame to gambling pathology, with the goal of improving treatment seeking rates and treatment effectiveness for those suffering from Gambling Disorder. By means of a modern theory of shame that distinguishes between shame expressed behaviorally (social withdrawal) and shame expressed emotionally (a negative judgment attributed globally to the self), this study showed a complex relationship of shame to gambling pathology that had not previously been discussed in gambling literature. Specifically, emotional shame was found to be positively correlated with gambling pathology, but only for those gamblers high on the problem gambling spectrum. Conversely, behavioral shame was found to be positively correlated with gambling pathology only for those gamblers low on the problem gambling spectrum. Given that it is the highest-problem gamblers who most require treatment, knowledge of the specific nature of shame that such gamblers experience can help treatment providers better customize their services to be accessible and effective to gamblers.

Additionally, this study generated initial reliability and validity data for the Gambling Related Involuntary Shame Test (GRIST), a scenario-based measure of gambling-specific shame created by this researcher. Though the GRIST shame scales did not show sufficient reliability to be considered valid at this time, the relationships between the GRIST and gambling pathology were shown to be consistent with that of the Guilt and Shame Proneness test (GASP), which are auspicious results. Additional suggestive trends shown by the GRIST data included the lack of effect that the outcome of a gambling scenario (losing or winning money) had on the shame generated from that scenario, and the potential utility of a scenario-based measure of gambling pathology. Further refinement of the GRIST scenarios to increase the overall reliability of the instrument will allow for confirmation and further exploration of these areas.

Compassion, altruism, yoga-based contemplative practices and psychological well-being
Rachna K. Rangan
Wright Institute
2015
Abstract
This study compares religion-based Yoga practitioners to secular practitioners of Yoga across compassionate altruism, empathy and psychological well-being. Yoga is one of the most widely used contemplative practices in the United States. Research indicates that many years of regular Yoga practice is beneficial for physical and psychological health. While the practice of Yoga has its origins in ancient Eastern religious philosophy with deep connections to Hinduism and Buddhism, in the U.S. and Europe, most Yoga practice is secular, focusing primarily on physical fitness. Secular, fitness enhancing Yoga practice most often fails to include reference to its spiritual and religious roots. This study found that all participants engaging in Yoga practice, including both secular and religion-based Yoga, were significantly lower in depression, anxiety, empathic distress and empathy-based guilt when compared to a non-contemplative population. Practitioners of religion-based Yoga whose practice is grounded in Eastern religious belief systems, compared to secular practitioners were found significantly higher in altruism towards strangers and lower in empathic distress.

Acculturation, Guilt, and Differentiation Among First Generation Iranian-American Women
Sara Badrtalei Sanchez
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
2015
Abstract
This study explores the relationship between acculturation, differentiation, and guilt among 25 first generation Iranian American women between ages 25 and 35 incorporating Bowen Family Systems Theory. Daughters of immigrant parents may have specific challenges with balancing two cultures: Iranian and American. The Differentiation of Self Inventory (DSI), the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67), and the Vancouver Index of Acculturation (VIA) questionnaires were distributed to first generation Iranian American daughters. Findings suggest that identifying more with the Iranian culture indicate fusion in the family system, while identifying with Mainstream/American culture was related to being less emotionally reactive and having higher levels of overall differentiation. Identifying with American culture also indicated decreased feelings of guilt on the Self-Hate subscale. There was an inverse relationship between differentiation (Emotional Cutoff and Fusion subscales) and guilt (Self-Hate subscale), and high levels of differentiation was associated with experiencing less Self-Hate guilt. Findings also substantiate Bowen’s approach in Family Systems Theory to be valid among multicultural families.

Effects of meditation practice on altruism, empathy, guilt, and depression among Theravada Buddhists
Winfred Chan Ark
Wright Institute
2014
Abstract
A group of 136 men and women self-identified as Theravada Buddhists were surveyed and compared to a group of 450 non-meditators on measures of empathy, altruism, guilt, depression, and Big-5 personality traits. Theravada Buddhists in the study were found to have significantly lower rates of separation and omnipotent responsibility guilt, empathic distress, neuroticism, depression, and altruism to friends and significantly higher measures of empathic concern, perspective taking, altruism to strangers, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and general factor of personality (GFP) than the general population sample. Intensity of meditation practice as determined by meditation experience, frequency, and duration was positively correlated with altruism to strangers and negatively correlated with omnipotence guilt, empathic concern, depression, and neuroticism. The influence of other versus self-focused goals was examined. Having other-focused goals (e.g. "for the benefit of all beings") for meditation was associated with significantly lower separation guilt, empathic distress, and neuroticism. The practice of loving-kindness meditation was not significantly correlated with any of the measures examined. Results are discussed in terms of possible physiological, psychological, and cultural factors. Implications of the current study are identified and suggestions for future research are provided.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adult women: Personality and neurotransmitters as measured by the Neurotransmitter Attributes Questionnaire
Margaret Ann Schiltz
Wright Institute
2014
Abstract
This study compares adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) only and ADHD with comorbid psychopathology established by self-diagnosis on the dopaminergic and serotonergic circuits as measured by subscales of the Neurotransmitter Attributes Questionnaire (NAQ). The two groups were also compared on the big five personality factors, as measured by the Brief Big Five Inventory (BFI). In addition, standardized measures of common mental disorders were correlated with one another and with the dopamine and serotonin subscales of the NAQ, to assess the validity of the NAQ subscales.

Participants included 1,287 adults (994 female, 286 male) ranging in age from 18 to 84 who completed an anonymous online survey. Ninety-five ADHD participants (76 females, 19 males) were identified and grouped into ADHD-only (42) and ADHD-dual (53) diagnoses. Significant evidence of dopaminergic dysfunction was found in both ADHD groups. Significantly higher serotonergic dysfunction was found in the ADHD group with comorbid disorders when compared to ADHD only; and in both ADHD groups when compared to No Diagnosis controls. Gender differences in serotonergic dysfunction and levels of comorbidity were not found within the ADHD groups.

Personality profiles of ADHD adults were compared to 857 healthy controls. Cluster analysis of the Big Five traits yielded three profiles: Resilient, Overcontrolled, and Undercontrolled. Both groups of ADHD participants were significantly Undercontrolled and demonstrated higher levels of dopaminergic dysfunction. The ADHD group with comorbid disorders was significantly lower in Resilience when compared to the ADHD-only group.

This study supported the validity of the NAQ subscales; the dopamine subscale significantly predicted high scores on the standardized measure of ADHD, even in the presence of significant serotonergic dysfunction. Contrary to the hypothesis and common clinical beliefs, no significant differences were found between males and females in both ADHD groups. The use of latent personality profile analysis with ADHD adults supports additional research into the Undercontrolled profile as a possible fit for adults with ADHD.

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>Empathy, interpersonal guilt, and depression in Iranian immigrants
Marzie Forghany
Alliant International University
2013
Abstract
Clinical data and recent theories suggest that guilt and empathy are significant factors in depression, but little is known about the effects of guilt and empathy on depression in Iranian immigrants. This study examined the relationship between interpersonal guilt, empathy, and depression in a group of Iranian immigrants. Specifically, this study attempted to identify the role of adaptive guilt as a mediating variable between interpersonal guilt and depression in Iranian immigrants.

Eighty-eight Iranian immigrants residing in California were recruited to complete the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67 (IGQ), Test of Self-Conscious Affect, Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies for Depression scale. This study tested three hypotheses using a correlation and regression research design. Hypothesis 1 states that there is a positive correlation between interpersonal guilt and depression in Iranian immigrants. Hypothesis 2 states that survivor guilt, separation guilt, omnipotent responsibility guilt, and empathy are predictors of depression in Iranian immigrants. Hypothesis 3 states that adaptive guilt is a mediating factor between interpersonal guilt and depression. The results of this current study indicated that interpersonal guilt was positively correlated with depression. This study also found that both separation guilt and survivor guilt were significantly related to depression. The study findings indicated that individuals with higher interpersonal guilt were more likely to suffer from depression. In addition, the study findings did not support the hypothesis that adaptive guilt mediated the relationship between interpersonal guilt and depression in Iranian immigrants, using Baron and Kenny's (1986) model.

Empathy-based guilt among Latino first-generation college students
Adrianna Gonzales Hooper
Wright Institute
2013
Abstract
This research examined the relationship between collegiate generation status and empathy-based guilt among Latino college students. It was hypothesized that Latino first-generation college students would report significantly higher levels of empathy-based guilt and depression, and lower levels of satisfaction with life compared to their non-first-generation college student peers. First-generation college students (FGCS) are defined as students for whom neither parent has a college degree or college experience. It was hypothesized that levels of empathy-based guilt would positively correlate with depression symptoms, and negatively correlate with levels of Satisfaction With Life. The Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, and the Satisfaction With Life Scale were administered to a sample of 204 Latino college students. Results suggest that Latino FGCS experience significantly higher levels of empathy-based guilt compared to non-FGCS. Survivor Guilt and Omnipotent Responsibility Guilt subscale scores, used to measure empathy-based guilt, significantly correlated with depression scores. A significant inverse correlation was found between Satisfaction With Life and the Survivor Guilt subscale. Latino FOCS and non-FOCS did not significantly differ on levels of depression.

The relationship between online sexual compulsivity and shame, guilt, internalized homonegativity, depression, and perceived social support in men who have sex with men
Colin A. Baptie
Wright Institute
2013
Abstract
Research has shown that online sexual activities are a significant part of Internet usage for many people and, especially, for men who have sex with men (Liau, Millett, and Marks, 2006; McFarlane, Bull, and Rietmeijer, 2000; Toomey and Rothenberg, 2000). For some, the Internet is a valuable tool to explore sexual differences, gain sexual knowledge, connect with others, and practice same-sex intimacy in a safe online environment (Dew and Chaney, 2004). However, for 1% of Internet users, online sexual activities can become problematic, even leading to severe difficulty with everyday functioning (Cooper, Delmonico, and Burg, 2000).

There are numerous reasons why men who have sex with men (MSM) are drawn to the Internet for sexual pursuits, few studies have looked at specific predictors of online sexual compulsivity in this population. With a sample of 126 MSM who use the Internet for sexual purposes, this study used an online survey to examine how shame, survivor guilt, depression, perceived social support, and internalized homonegativity predicted levels of sexual compulsivity, as measured by the Compulsive Sexual Behavioral Inventory (Coleman, Miner, Ohlerking, and Raymond, 2001), and the length of time spent online engaged in sexual activities (Internet sex hours). The study found that perceived social support was significantly and negatively correlated with both sexual compulsivity and Internet sex hours. Lack of perceived social support was seen as a significant predictor of online sexual compulsivity in this sample. Variables that were significantly related to sexual compulsivity but not to Internet sex hours included survivor guilt, depression, and internalized homonegativity. Of these, depression and internalized homonegativity made the most significant contributions to sexual compulsivity. Moreover, lower socio-economic status and greater frequency of drug use were also significant predictors of sexual compulsivity in this population but neither variable predicted Internet sex hours. The study results highlight the need for clinicians to pay careful attention to the level of perceived social support in MSM who use the Internet as a medium for sexual expression, especially in urban areas where larger gay populations may conceal a lack of social connectedness.

Friendship and Bipolar Disorder
Kirsten Ashley Helgager
Wright Institute
2013
Abstract
Social support has implications for recovery from mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder (Goodwin and Jamison, 2007), but previous literature has not examined the unique effects of friendship. This two-part mixed-methods study explored the role of friendship in individuals with a self-reported diagnosis of bipolar disorder, including the impact of bipolar symptoms, stigma, and interpersonal factors such as empathy-based guilt In Part One, three individuals with bipolar disorder were interviewed regarding their experiences of stigma, symptoms, and friendship. In Part Two, 91 participants with bipolar disorder completed three standardized measures: the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), two subscales of the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire – 67 (IGQ-67), and the Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ). They also completed the Online Pilot Questionnaire Regarding Bipolar Disorder and Friendship, a pilot survey created from Part One of this study, containing both standardized and free-response items regarding experiences with friendship. Results suggest that friendship is not as important as expected, as only about half of respondents found friends instrumental to their recovery. Additionally, about half were satisfied with the quality of their friendships, and results suggest that stigma and mood symptoms may affect the process of making and maintaining quality friendships. This bipolar sample also had higher guilt and a lower sense of wellbeing than the general population – both associated with lower friendship satisfaction and stability. While participants were generally open with friends about their diagnosis, contrary to the hypothesis, disclosure was not related to friendship satisfaction, friendship stability, or subjective wellbeing. This paper discusses other relevant correlations and sample characteristics, as well as the qualitative themes that emerged around friendship, self-disclosure, symptoms, and stigma for the 84 participants who filled out the free-response items on the Online Pilot Questionnaire Regarding Bipolar Disorder and Friendship. Implications and directions for future research are also presented.

How Personality Influences Compliance: The Power of the Individual (MA)
Jennifer Hurst
Middle Tennessee State University
2013
Abstract
This study explores various personality traits that may contribute to an individual's compliant behavior. Previous research has studied the effects of self-esteem, openness to experiences, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability, guilt, and psychological reactance as they pertain to self-reported compliance scores, but not how they related to actual, real-world compliance. This study examines these traits and how they correlated with compliance to a task. Results suggest that complaint and non-compliant individuals score similarly on all traits, but that extraversion correlates negatively with compliance to a task. Implications and limitations of the study are discussed.

Guilt and early traumatic experiences: An investigation of empathy-based guilt in adult survivors of early parental death
Svetlana Alshvang
Wright Institute
2012
Abstract
This quantitative study focused on factors influencing those who lost a parent before the age of 20. The study explored the role of empathy-based guilt, specifically survivor guilt and omnipotent responsibility guilt, depression, well-being, the surviving parent's care of the child, the child's participation in mourning behaviors, and individual personality traits of neuroticism and introversion in 137 adults who lost a parent during the first 20 years of life. The participants filled out an online survey that included the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67), the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), the Mourning Behavior Checklist (MBC), the Big Five Inventory (BFI-44), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS).

The study found that both survivor guilt and omnipotent responsibility guilt showed significant positive correlations with neuroticism and depression, and a negative correlation with subjective well-being. Significant positive relationships were found for survivor guilt and omnipotent responsibility guilt with depression in the surviving parent post-death In addition, survivor guilt was significantly and negatively correlated with the surviving parent's level of care and higher extraversion. Contrary to the primary hypothesis, omnipotent responsibility guilt was positively related to factors that are normally considered positive and adaptive, such as participation in mourning behaviors, high satisfaction with childhood pre-death, and living in an intact family before death.

p>Also in contrast to the findings from the literature, in this study neither level of parental care post death nor involvement in mourning activities was a significant predictor of current depressive symptoms, as measured by PHQ-9. Instead, survivor guilt and neuroticism were the most significant predictors of current symptoms of depression in this population. However, when depression was measured by the number of lifetime depressive episodes, both survivor guilt and level of parental care were found to be equally powerful predictors of depression.

p>Exploratory analyses tested for the effect of confounding variables, including socioeconomic status, age, gender, ethnicity, age at death, pre-death satisfaction with childhood, childhood and adulthood traumatic events, and post- death support. Implications of these findings were discussed as well as suggestions for future research in this area.

The role of guilt in the development of pro-environmental behavior
Manisha M. Sudindranath
Wright Institute
2012
Abstract
In this anonymous study of 210 participants, it was found that feelings of guilt over the environment were significantly associated with self-reported environmentally conscious behavior. "Green guilt" and pro-environmental behavior were associated with resilient and highly adaptive functioning, and negatively associated with depression, anxiety, and neuroticism. In an experimental component of the study, two stories about workshops designed to raise consciousness about environmental issues were presented. In one condition, participants were encouraged to think about their own behaviors, privately. In a second condition, participants were requested to publicly "confess" their environmentally friendly or non-friendly behaviors. Participants assigned to one of the two conditions, were asked to write about the stories. When these narratives were compared on the Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count program (LIWC; Pennebaker et al., 2007), it was found that responses to the private condition contained significantly more positive emotion words than responses to the public condition.

When do we forgive? The role of apology and empathy-based guilt in facilitating forgiveness
Kirsten E. Acker
Wright Institute
2011
Abstract
Researchers have conceptualized forgiveness as an internal psychological process. However, most transgressions requiring forgiveness occur in interpersonal, relational contexts, and forgiveness plays an important role in maintaining and repairing important social relationships. The present study examined the relationship between guilt and forgiveness. Participants read a third-person, transgression narrative from an Apology, a neutral No Apology, or a victim-blaming No Apology condition, and rated the likelihood of the victim offering forgiveness and of the victim believing the transgressor felt guilt or responsibility for the accident. The Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire, the Dispositional Altruism Scale, and the Big-Five Personality Inventory were also administered, and narrative responses were analyzed for linguistic characteristics using the Linguistic Inquiry Word Count program. The expression of guilt and apology by the transgressor predicted forgiveness, identification with the transgressor, and social and emotion word usage. Implications of the current findings and directions for future research are discussed.

The military and Facebook
Joanna Morgan
Wright Institute
2010
Abstract
This study is about the men and women in the U.S. Military who are suffering from exposure to traumatic events experienced during their tours of duty in Iraq and Afghanistan and their use of online social networking sites (most notably Facebook) as a means to deal with their trauma and increase social support during their deployment and upon their return home. It was hypothesized that higher frequency and extent of online social networking will have positive psychological benefits for those in the military, affecting levels of depression, PTSD, life satisfaction, and feelings of guilt. This was a quantitative, correlational study of a cohort of men and women in the U.S. military. In addition, the participants' narrative responses to specific questions were qualitatively analyzed.

A total of 79 volunteers participated in this study. Data was collected from their completion of five instruments online: (a) Military and Facebook Questionnaire (designed by the researcher exclusively for this study), (b) PTSD Checklist–Military Version, (c) Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire, (d) Center for Epidemiological Studies–Depression Scale, (e) Satisfaction With Life Scale. The participants also completed a demographics questionnaire. Statistical analyses were conducted for each of the major hypotheses tested. Results showed that online social networking did not have a significant effect on psychological wellbeing. Conversely, face-to-face contact correlated with lower levels of depression and more satisfaction with life.

Psychosociocultural factors and the social and academic integration of Latino(a) college students
Arlene Velez-Galan
Purdue University
2010
Abstract
Using two simultaneous regressions, I examined the effects of psychosociocultural factors (i.e. motivational orientation, interpersonal guilt, attitudinal familism, cultural congruity, acculturation) on the social and academic integration to college of Latino students. Latino(a) college students ( N = 120) completed the following questionnaires: (a) demographic form; (b) Institutional Integration Scale (Pascarella and Terenzini, 1980); (c) Career Decision-Making Autonomy Scale (Guay, 2005); (d) Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (O’Connor, Berry, Weiss, Bush, and Sampson, 1997); (e) Attitudinal Familism Scale (Lugo Steidel and Contreras, 2003); (f) Cultural Congruity Scale (Gloria and Kurpius, 1996); and (f) the Bidimensional Acculturation Scale (Marin and Gamba, 1996). Motivational orientation, interpersonal guilt, familism, cultural congruity, and acculturation combined account for 10% of the variance in social integration and 22% of the variance in academic integration. Cultural congruity and intrinsic motivation contributed unique variance in academic integration of Latino(a) students. These results provide support for the applicability of the PSC framework (Castellanos and Gloria, 2007) when helping with Latino(a) college students navigate through the challenges encountered while pursuing degrees in higher education. Implications for practice, limitations of the study, and future research are discussed.

Coping with loss due to hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: Parents', spouses' and siblings' grief reactions
Laura Marie Cayan
Wright Institute
2009
Abstract
While any type of death can be difficult for family survivors, those that lose youthful family members suddenly and unexpectedly tend to have especially severe, and potentially complicated grief responses. Death by Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy (HCM) imposes each of these characteristics. HCM, a surprisingly common but not publically well-known heart condition, is the most frequent cause of sudden death in young adults. Although one in five hundred people worldwide have HCM, medical channels for understanding and dealing with HCM are only recently developing and research exploring the psychological experience of losing a loved one to HCM has not appeared in the existing published literature.

The present study uses survey reports to obtain an understanding of the population of HCM family survivors. Eighty-six survivors of HCM loss completed the following: (1) a demographic questionnaire; (2) a grief experiences questionnaire; (3) the Grief Evaluation Measure (GEM); (4) the Texas Revised Inventory of Grief (TRIG); (5) the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9); and (6) the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67 (IGQ-67).

Survey responses mostly confirm several hypotheses that were constructed from prior research findings from other bereavement studies. They reveal that the loss of a spouse, sibling or child to HCM places survivors at high risk of developing profound grief reactions compared to survivors of anticipated loss. These grief reactions tend to endure over many years and include significantly high levels of depression, survivor guilt, and omnipotent responsibility guilt that are commonly accompanied by the demise of the survivor's worldview along with alterations to key relationships and social interactions. In multiple regression analyses, depression was most predictive of the grief reported by participants followed by omnipotent responsibility guilt. Implications of the results and recommendations for future research and clinical treatment are also discussed.

Interpersonal guilt and college adjustment among first-generation college students
David C. Votruba
Smith College School for Social Work
2008
Abstract
This study examined relationships between college student generational status, interpersonal guilt, and college adjustment. The sample was self-selected from traditionally-aged, first-time, first-year undergraduates enrolled at a highly-selective, major Midwestern university (N = 255; 49 first-generation; 206 non-first-generation). The Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire and the Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire were used to assess levels of interpersonal guilt and college adjustment, respectively. Participants completed an online survey containing these measures and a brief demographic questionnaire. Study hypotheses predicted that (1) first-generation college students (FGCS) would report higher levels of interpersonal guilt when compared to non-FGCS, (2) interpersonal guilt would correlate inversely with college adjustment for both groups, and (3) interpersonal guilt would affect the college adjustment of FGCS more negatively in comparison to that of their peers. While interpersonal guilt and college adjustment were significantly inversely correlated for both groups of students and FGCS reported significantly lower levels of college adjustment, FGCS did not report higher levels of interpersonal guilt and the college adjustment of FGCS was not more negatively affected by interpersonal guilt in comparison to their peers. Implications for social work and higher education research, policy, and practice are discussed.

Examining the relationship between gender role conflict and interpersonal guilt in men
Timothy Ray Thomas
Wright Institute
2008
Abstract
Literature has documented significant distress that men feel in current society due to gender role conflict (Good, et al., 1995; Hayes and Mahalik, 2000; O'Neil, et al., 1995). The development of the Gender Role Conflict Scale (O'Neil, Helms, Gable, David, and Wrightman, 1986) has provided an effective means of measuring the level of discomfort men may experience as a result of violating traditional masculine standards. The measure has identified four subscales that comprise this conflict including Restrictive emotionality, Restricted affectionate behavior between men, Conflict between work and family relations, and Success, power, and competition. Prior studies with the Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS-1) have found support for the relationship between higher levels of gender role conflict and depression (Cournoyer, 1994), anxiety (Sharpe and Heppner, 1991) and shame (Thompkins and Rando, 2003). However, the role of unconscious interpersonal guilt that is central to the development of psychopathology in Control Mastery Theory (Weiss, 1993, 1986) has never been studied in relation to gender role conflict. The Interpersonal Guilt scale (O'Connor, Berry, Weiss, Bush, and Sampson, 1997) was developed to measure a number of different aspects of unconscious guilt including Survivor guilt, Separation guilt, Omnipotent responsibility guilt, and Self-hate guilt. This study used an Internet survey to examine the relationship between gender role conflict as measured by the GRCS-I and interpersonal guilt as measured by the Interpersonal Guilt Scale (IGQ-67) in a community sample of men.

One hundred and nineteen men completed the following: (a) a demographic questionnaire; (b) the Gender Role Conflict Scale-I (GRCS-I); (c) the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67 (IGQ-67); (d) the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale (M-C SDS); and the (e) the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Results of the current study supported all the primary hypothesized relationships between the subscales of Interpersonal Guilt and the Gender Role Conflict subscales. The one exception was a non significant relationship between Survivor guilt and Restrictive affectionate behavior between men. Supplemental hypotheses used multiple regression analyses to examine the relationship between interpersonal guilt and gender role conflict subscales with depression as measured by the PHQ-9 on GRC factors held constant. The study found strong positive relationships between all gender role factors and interpersonal guilt subscales once the effect of depression was statistically controlled. In other words, guilt was more predictive of gender role conflict than depression. These multiple regression analyses particularly highlighted the role of Self-hate and Omnipotent responsibility guilt in this sample of men in relation to gender role conflict. These results suggest that guilt may be more strongly related to gender role conflict issues than depression and therefore guilt may be an important area for clinicians to focus on when working with men struggling with gender role issues.

Survivor guilt in the African-American population
Robyn Cannon Pearl
Wright Institute
2007
Abstract
How do you feel when you achieve or succeed beyond those you perceive just as deserving of success? Prior research shows that the majority of African-Americans belong to extended families that include a wide range in socioeconomic status. In a culture that values family cohesion and collectivism, could some African-Americans be holding back success in fear of breaking away from the group and/or harming a family member? Do members of the African-American community that are succeeding beyond their peers experience higher rates of survivor guilt than the general population? Research suggests that this is a distinct possibility.

This study measured possible feelings of survivor guilt in an African-American sample population of middle socioeconomic status or higher. There were two hypotheses. Hypothesis 1 stated that the African-American sample would have higher rates of survivor guilt than a general population sample. Hypothesis 2 stated that African-American women in the sample would have higher rates of survivor guilt than both the African-American men and the general population sample.

The conclusions to be drawn from the results of the study may be summarized as follows: Quantitative surveys of 44 African-American participants were collected using the Survivor Guilt subscale of the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67, and significantly lower rates of survivor guilt were found in the African-American sample population for both men and women when compared to the general population sample.

Bearing witness: Workplace mobbing and the observer's quandary
Anna Shorenstein
Wright Institute
2007
Abstract
This study was designed to focus on the experiences of people who witness direct and indirect aggression aimed at targets of workplace bullying and mobbing. One hundred and seventy four participants were assigned to one of three hypothetical scenarios that differed in the degree to which a manager was either implicitly hostile towards the target (Amy), explicitly hostile towards her, or empathic towards her, when she arranged a private meeting to discuss her experiences being mobbed by her colleagues at work. Participants were asked to describe what they thought a coworker (Robin) might think, feel, and do after witnessing Amy being mobbed. A rating scale was created to predict the likelihood that Robin might help Amy, feel suspicious of her personality, feel guilty towards her, and attribute her circumstances more to the situation or to her disposition. It was hypothesized that the scenario in which the manager was empathic towards Amy would elicit greater predictions that Robin might help Amy than when the manager was either implicitly hostile or explicitly hostile towards Amy. Results showed that the scenario groups only differed on the Guilt category of the rating scale (F = 12.40, p < .0005), with the prediction for the Explicitly Hostile Scenario having the highest mean. Additional analyses examined the correlations of the scenario group ratings with each other, with the Interpersonal Reactivity Inventory (Davis, 1980), and the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67 (IGQ-67; O'Connor, Berry, Weiss, Bush, & Sampson, 1997). Predictions that Robin might help Amy were correlated with predictions that she would feel less suspicious of Amy, feel less guilt towards her, and attribute her circumstances more to the situation. Only the Self-Hate subscale of the IGQ and the Personal Distress subscale of the IRI significantly correlated with scenario group ratings, with both being associated with predictions that Robin would be less likely to help Amy. These results suggest that when workplace bullying and mobbing are supported by a hostile manager, observers may feel greater guilt towards the targets because they are afraid of intervening. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are explored.

Survivor guilt in the first-born mutual child in stepmother stepfamilies.
Elizabeth Merrill
Wright Institute
2007
Abstract
This study was designed to focus on the experiences of people who witness direct and indirect aggression aimed at targets of workplace bullying and mobbing. One hundred and seventy four participants were assigned to one of three hypothetical scenarios that differed in the degree to which a manager was either implicitly hostile towards the target (Amy), explicitly hostile towards her, or empathic towards her, when she arranged a private meeting to discuss her experiences being mobbed by her colleagues at work. Participants were asked to describe what they thought a coworker (Robin) might think, feel, and do after witnessing Amy being mobbed. A rating scale was created to predict the likelihood that Robin might help Amy, feel suspicious of her personality, feel guilty towards her, and attribute her circumstances more to the situation or to her disposition. It was hypothesized that the scenario in which the manager was empathic towards Amy would elicit greater predictions that Robin might help Amy than when the manager was either implicitly hostile or explicitly hostile towards Amy. Results showed that the scenario groups only differed on the Guilt category of the rating scale (F = 12.40, p < .0005), with the prediction for the Explicitly Hostile Scenario having the highest mean. Additional analyses examined the correlations of the scenario group ratings with each other, with the Interpersonal Reactivity Inventory (Davis, 1980), and the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67 (IGQ-67; O'Connor, Berry, Weiss, Bush, & Sampson, 1997). Predictions that Robin might help Amy were correlated with predictions that she would feel less suspicious of Amy, feel less guilt towards her, and attribute her circumstances more to the situation. Only the Self-Hate subscale of the IGQ and the Personal Distress subscale of the IRI significantly correlated with scenario group ratings, with both being associated with predictions that Robin would be less likely to help Amy. These results suggest that when workplace bullying and mobbing are supported by a hostile manager, observers may feel greater guilt towards the targets because they are afraid of intervening. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are explored.

Community preparedness: A psychological portrait of the citizen responder
Jaclyn Beckmann Devine
Argosy University, San Francisco Bay Area
2006
Abstract
There have been numerous catastrophes in recent history that have caused a number of American citizens to join CERT (Community Emergency Response Team) a government-funded training program that enhances the public's ability to recognize, prepare for, respond to, and recover from large-scale emergencies or disasters (Nassau County Office of Emergency Management [NC-OEM]). Community Preparedness: A Psychological Portrait of the Citizen Responder, by Jaclyn Beckmann Devine, was a quantitative study intended to assess a population of CERTs (46 females; 45 males) for trauma symptomology, survivor guilt, omnipotent responsibility guilt, and personality styles. The study tested 10' hypotheses based on the rationale that people who participate in CERT suffer from survivor guilt and as away to resolve that guilt, they altruistically volunteer to help society. A sample of Nassau County, New York; CERTs (N = 91) volunteered and was administered a demographic questionnaire, the Millon Index of Personality Styles - Revised (MIPS-R; Millon, 2004), the Trauma Symptoms Inventory (TSI; Briere & PAR, 1995), and the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67; O'Conner et al., 1997). Results indicate that the sample population exhibited personality styles categorized by personality trait groups such as Actively Modifying, Other-Nurturing, and Externally Focused (Millon, 2004). The sample population also exhibited trauma symptoms, correlating with significant levels of survivor guilt ( p value <.0005). Results also indicate that the sample population exhibited omnipotent responsibility guilt (p value <.0005). Results are suggestive, and further research is needed before conclusions can be made connecting previous trauma and survivor guilt to social action. Overall, the study was small and had significant limitations that impede conclusive results. The results that were found are worthy of noting, however, and support future research in the field of Disaster psychology, specifically as pertaining to citizen response and CERT. Furthermore, despite results being tentative, citizen responders and the CERT program training curriculum should consider the impact of psychological functioning on citizen response and community preparedness. In extent, it is recommended that the training curriculum include a more in depth psychological module with psycho-educational components such as defining trauma, vicarious trauma, offering coping strategies, and debriefing practices.

Suicide survivor guilt: The relationship between interpersonal guilt and complicated grief in suicide bereavement
Jill Fischer
Wright Institute
2006
Abstract
The term "suicide survivor" denotes family members and close friends who are left to suffer in the wake of suicide. Current estimations count a staggering 4.47 million suicide survivors in this country, with 186,000 new survivors each year. Only recently has empirically based research been conducted on suicide bereavement, and many of the current studies have contradictory findings and are weakened by various methodological problems. While guilt is thought to be one of the most intense aspects of suicide bereavement, research has also yielded contradictory findings regarding the prevalence, nature, and impact of guilt for suicide survivors. This study aims to identify how to better help suicide survivors through what can often be a difficult and painful mourning process by determining whether a positive relationship exists between complicated grief and unconscious, interpersonal guilt, as defined by Control Mastery Theory. Two hundred and fifty suicide survivors completed the following: (a) a brief demographic and informational questionnaire; (b) the Inventory of Complicated Grief (ICG-R); (c) the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67 (IGQ-67); and (d) the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-Revised (CESD-R). The results of the present study supported all hypotheses; overall interpersonal guilt contributed an additional 6% of the variance of participants' complicated grief scores, after the effects of depression were removed, R 2 = .34, F(2, 247) = 65.55, p < .0001. In addition, higher levels of complicated grief were noted for participants who were recruited from online resources specific to suicide survivors; those who had a lower level of education; those who had experienced a suicide relatively recently; those who were spouses and parents of individuals who committed suicide; those who had more frequent contact with the deceased before the suicide; and those who had greater perceived closeness to the deceased before the suicide. Further analyses of variables relating to attachment to the deceased revealed significant positive relationships between frequency of contact and separation guilt as well as perceived closeness and both survivor and omnipotent responsibility guilt. The implications of the results are discussed and suggestions for future research are made.

Vulnerability to distress and sexual orientation: A comparison of indicators of psychopathology in bisexual, homosexual, and heterosexual women
Sara J. Lieppe
Wright Institute
2006
Abstract
This study compares indicators of psychopathology in homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual women. While some believe that homosexuals do not experience any more mental health problems than do heterosexuals, others have suggested that homosexuals have higher rates of psychopathology. Little data exists regarding bisexuals' mental health. This study makes use of archival data collected by O'Connor, Lewis, and Berry (2005) in a study of attributes suggesting low levels of serotonin and/or dopamine, and psychological disorders and distress. The study was internet-based; no identifying information was gathered. In the present study, self-identified bisexual, homosexual and heterosexual women were compared on measures of psychopathology and personality. Demographic information gathered included, but was not exclusive to, ethnicity, current psychiatric disorders, psychoactive medications, religion, and years of education. Results demonstrated no differences between homosexual and heterosexual women on any of the variables. Bisexual women, however, scored significantly higher than did heterosexual women on Low-Serotonin, Depression, Survivor Guilt, and Neuroticism, and they scored significantly higher than did homosexual women on Low-Serotonin, Depression, and Neuroticism. These results suggest that bisexual women may be at higher risk for psychopathology. In prior research, homosexuals and bisexuals commonly were collapsed into one category and then compared to heterosexual women. The results from this study demonstrate the importance of recognizing and identifying a group that may be facing a unique set of problems and social conditions. If comparisons are to yield accurate and useful data, homosexual and bisexual women need to be categorized separately. Bisexual women may be confronted with greater social isolation, in addition to discrimination, without the benefit of belonging to an identified, though stigmatized, group. They may be facing a unique set of problems that thus far have not been identified or examined. These results demonstrate the need for further study that is specifically designed to better understand the social factors contributing to the vulnerability bisexual women may be facing. The social isolation, discrimination, and neglect experienced by this group may have prevented them from receiving supportive and effective treatment, with attention to their unique problems and particular needs.

Guilt, Shame, and Grief: An Empirical Study of Perinatal Bereavement
Peter Barr
Centre for Behavioural Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sydney
2004
Abstract
Aim. The aim of the present research was to investigate the relationship of personality guilt- and shame-proneness to grief and psychological dysphoria following bereavement due to stillbirth or death in the newborn period. Methods. Participating parents completed self-report questionnaire measures of proneness to situational guilt and shame (Test of Self-Conscious Affect-2), chronic guilt and shame (Personal Feelings Questionnaire-2) and interpersonal guilt (Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67), grief (Perinatal Grief Scale-33) and psychological dysphoria (General Health Questionnaire-28) one month (early, N = 158) and 13 months (late, N = 149) after a perinatal death. Results. Women compared with men self-reported more intense grief, anxiety and depression one month after the death, but there were no significant sex differences in grief or psychological dysphoria one year later. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that composite shame (situational and chronic) explained a small but statistically significant proportion of the variance in early total grief (adjusted R2 = .09) and anxiety (adjusted R2 = .07) in women, and early total grief (adjusted R2 = .19), anxiety (adjusted R2 = .13) and depression (adjusted R2 = .10) in men. Composite guilt (situational, chronic and interpersonal) controlled for shame did not make a significant further contribution to the variance in early total grief, anxiety or depression in either sex. Composite shame explained not only significant but meaningful proportions of the variance in late grief (adjusted R2 = .27), anxiety (adjusted R2 = .21) and depression (adjusted R2 = .27) in women, and late grief (adjusted R2 = .56), anxiety (adjusted R2 = .30) and depression (adjusted R2 = .51) in men. Composite guilt controlled for shame made significant further contributions to the variance 13 in late grief (?R2 = .21), anxiety (?R2 = .16) and depression (?R2 = .25) in women, and late grief (?R2 = .11) in men. Shame and guilt together explained a substantial proportion of the variance in late grief (adjusted R2 = .45), anxiety (adjusted R2 = .33) and depression (adjusted R2 = .49) in women, and late grief (adjusted R2 = .64), anxiety (adjusted R2 = .35) and depression (adjusted R2 = .56) in men. Situational shame, chronic guilt and survivor guilt made positive unique contributions to the variance in late grief in women. Chronic shame and survivor guilt made unique contributions to the variance in late grief in men. Situational guilt made a significant unique negatively valenced contribution to the variance in late grief in women. Early composite shame, but not guilt, predicted late grief, anxiety and depression in men. Early composite shame and/or guilt did not predict late grief, anxiety or depression in women. Conclusion. Personality proneness to shame was more relevant to late grief, anxiety and depression in men than in women, but survivor guilt was equally important to late grief in both sexes. Chronic guilt and functional situational guilt were pertinent to late grief, anxiety and depression in women, but not in men. Personality shame- and guilt-proneness have important relationships with parental grief after perinatal death that have not hitherto been recognised.

Psychologists', psychiatrists' and other mental health professionals' use of psychoactive medication and therapy: The ongoing stigma connected to psychological problems and treatment
Karen Godfredsen
Wright Institute
2004
Abstract
A group of 152 psychologists, psychiatrists and students in mental health professions were studied to determine the prevalence of mental health problems and treatment among clinicians, to assess clinicians' level of comfort with disclosure of their personal experiences in a variety of settings, and to solicit qualitative data related to stigma and disclosure of use of psychotropic medication and psychotherapy. In particular, it was predicted that clinicians would report less openness about their use of psychotropic medication than their participation in psychotherapy. Results indicated that 95% of clinicians in the sample had experienced mental health problems, with depression, anxiety and adjustment disorder appearing as the most commonly reported diagnoses. With regards to treatment, 84% had at some time participated in psychotherapy, and 57% had taken psychotropic medication at some time. Forty percent of those taking medication reported ostracization by colleagues as a result of disclosure and 30% reported damage to their professional reputation. As expected, mean comfort with disclosure ratings were significantly higher (p < .001) for disclosure of psychotherapy than for disclosure of use of psychotropic medication, particularly in professional settings (p < .0001). Psychologists reported significantly fewer fears and negative experiences with regards to disclosure than did psychiatrists or students (p < .05). Additionally, women were found to be significantly more likely to disclose their participation in psychotherapy to both friends, colleagues and supervisors (p < .01).

Unconscious guilt as an explanation for male genital exhibitionism
Bernard M. Marshall
Smith College School for Social Work
2004
Abstract
This exploratory study investigated the role of unconscious guilt in the development and maintenance of male genital exhibitionism. A series of four case studies were retrospectively examined for the role played by unconscious guilt. The cases were initially approached and formulated using psychoanalytic drive theory as a theoretical model, but it was empirically discovered that shame and guilt played a significant role in the development of the disorder in these cases. The relief of the feelings and resolution of the behavior through a therapeutic process that included an element of forgiveness further suggested a significant role for shame and guilt. The cases were retrospectively examined using the framework of control mastery theory, and the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire was used to measure several domains of guilt in these subjects. In addition, the General Ability Measure for Adults IQ test, the Minnesota Multi-phasic Personality Inventory-2, and structured clinical interviews were used to further describe and profile these subjects. The results support the hypothesis that unconscious guilt is associated with male genital exhibitionism and unexpectedly reveal that sexual trauma may be an important cause of unconscious guilt and the generation of exhibitionistic behavior in these subjects. The findings challenge psychoanalytic drive theory that sees the behavior resulting primarily from disguised aggression expressed in sexual behavior. This work raises questions about the correct theoretical model for this behavior, and calls for further clinical research to illuminate the role of unconscious guilt in the development of compulsive sexual behaviors.

Interpersonal guilt and self-defeating behavior of foster youth
Rebecca Murray
Wright Institute
2004
Abstract
This study examined relationships between levels of interpersonal guilt, self-defeating behaviors and early life outcomes in 43 young adults between 18 and 30 years old who lived in long-term foster care for at least two years. The data for this study were collected largely online from participants who were recruited through agencies working with emancipated foster youth, and through ads placed in former foster youth-oriented publications and websites. Interpersonal Guilt was measured through the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67: O'Connor, Berry, Weiss, Bush & Sampson, 1997). Self-defeating behaviors while in foster care was assessed by participants' self-report of past self-defeating behaviors. Current self-defeating behaviors were measured through the Self-Defeating Personality Scale (SDPS: Schill, 1990). Current life satisfaction was measured by the Satisfaction With Life scale (SWLS: Deiner, 1985). Other indicators of current life outcomes included self-report of financial, material and social support resources. Hardiness, a set of psychological traits found to correlated with improved life outcomes, was measured via the Hardiness Scale (HS: Bartone, Ursano, Wright & Ingraham, 1989). The results of this study found that Survivor, Omnipotent, Separation Guilt and Self-Hate were all significantly associated with current self-defeating behavior as measured on the SDPS. Survivor Guilt and Self-Hate were also both significantly associated with past self-defeating behaviors. Individuals higher in proneness to all four types of interpersonal guilt tended to score lower on measures of Hardiness. Separation Guilt was associated with less satisfaction with life, lower incomes, and lower levels of education. Self-Hate was associated with less satisfaction with life, and fewer social supports. Survivor Guilt was significantly related to reported worry about biological father and siblings while in foster care. Finally, mean levels of Separation Guilt and Omnipotent Responsibility Guilt in former foster youth were significantly less than reported norms.

Sexual masochism, guilt, and the martyr mother phenomenon
Robert C. Steiner
Alliant International University, San Francisco
2004
Abstract
This study examined associations between sexual masochism, interpersonal guilt, and the martyr mother phenomenon. The martyr mother is unhappy, depressed, and conveys these feelings to her children who often feel responsible for her unhappiness. Participants were 21 men, 47 women, and 4 with no gender reported, recruited from a sadomasochistic community and a general adult population, ages ranging from 21 to 69 with mean of 36 years, from mixed ethnic backgrounds, and different levels of education. 40 were heterosexual, 18 bisexual, 7 homosexual, 2 lesbian, 2 other, and 3 who provided no information about orientation. Participants were administered the Wilson Sex Fantasy Questionnaire (SFQ, which measures the frequency of masochistic and sadistic fantasies/behaviors providing a masochism and sadism score. They also completed the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67), which includes a subscale of Survivor Guilt, Separation Guilt, Omnipotent Responsibility Guilt and Self-hate; and the Parental Questionnaire (PQ), which asks participants to write narratives describing their parents. Experienced clinicians rated these narratives using The Parental Rating Scale-R (PRS-R) to quantify the degree of martyrdom. Participants rated their parents on martyr-like qualities using The Parental Rating Scale (PRS). Contrary to prediction, no correlation was found between sexual masochism and the martyr mother phenomenon. In males, however, the martyr father was found to have a non-significant correlation with sexual masochism. Furthermore both the martyr mother and martyr father were non-significantly correlated with sexual sadism in males. The martyr mother significantly predicted Self-hate (r = .30), a subscale of the IGQ-67 measuring negative self-cognitions, correlated with depression in prior studies. This suggests that the martyr mother phenomenon might be a correlate of psychological masochism. A negative correlation between the guilt subscales on the IGQ-67 and sexual masochism was found, in contrast to expectations, perhaps reflecting an overgeneralization of the term “masochism.” This study suggests that people participating in sexual masochistic fantasies/behaviors are low in interpersonal guilt, whereas guilt-prone people are unlikely to engage in sexual masochism. Self-hate was not correlated with sexual masochism suggesting less association with psychological problems than is often assumed.

The role of survivor guilt in a gay HIV-negative male therapist who treats a gay HIV-positive male client
Robert Andrew Vargas
Wright Institute
2004
Abstract
The present study examines the levels of survivor guilt in gay HIV-negative male therapists who treat gay HIV-positive male clients. Gay HIV-negative male therapists were recruited as volunteer subjects from counseling centers in San Francisco and New York City. Three instruments were used in the study: the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ), the Survivor Guilt Questionnaire (SGQ), and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). The main hypothesis was that the subjects would report experiencing survivor guilt when working with HIV-positive gay male clients. Another hypothesis is that the survivor guilt subscale of the SGQ would positively correlate with the survivor guilt subscale of the IGQ. It was also hypothesized that the guilt subscore of the BDI would positively correlate with both the survivor guilt subscore of the IGQ and the survivor guilt subscore of the SGQ. Another hypothesis is that for HIV-negative gay male therapists, years of clinical experience would negatively correlate with his subscore of survivor guilt on the SGQ and IGQ.

Interpersonal guilt, spirituality, and religiosity: An empirical investigation of relationships
Elizabeth Joy Albertsen
Wright Institute
2003
Abstract
The relationships between guilt and spirituality and religiosity were examined. The main hypothesis was that spirituality, measured by the Mysticism Scale (M-Scale) would be positively correlated with adaptive guilt, measured by the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA), but negatively correlated with maladaptive interpersonal guilt, measured by the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67). It was hypothesized that spiritual transcendence, measured by the Spiritual Transcendence Scale (STS), would be positively correlated with spiritual experience, measured by the M-Scale, and that spiritual transcendence would have a negative correlation with maladaptive interpersonal guilt. There was not support for a significant relationship between spiritual experience and adaptive guilt. There was support for a negative relationship between spiritual experience and maladaptive interpersonal guilt. Strong positive correlations were found between spiritual experience and spiritual transcendence. There were mixed results regarding the relationship between spiritual transcendence and maladaptive interpersonal guilt. No support was found for a relationship between spirituality and subjective well-being. There was support for a positive correlation between religiosity and adaptive guilt. There was not support for a direct relationship between religiosity and maladaptive interpersonal guilt. There was evidence of a positive relationship between adherence to religious creed and adaptive guilt, but there were mixed results for the relationship between adherence to creed and maladaptive interpersonal guilt. Subjective well being did not have a significant relationship with adaptive guilt, but there was support for a negative correlation between subjective well-being and maladaptive interpersonal guilt. Post hoc analyses tested for confounds of age, gender, ethnic group, religious affiliation, experience of religion in the childhood home, and change of religious affiliation.

An exploration of guilt in families with adolescent anorexia nervosa
Karena M. Berghold
Wright Institute
2001
Abstract
The goal of the present study was to examine the relationship between interpersonal guilt, conflict, and independence in families with adolescent anorexia nervosa. Subjects for this study agreed to participate in a larger clinical trial involving manualized outpatient family therapy treatment for adolescent anorexia nervosa developed by James Lock, M.D., Ph.D. Families were recruited from an affiliated eating disorder clinic as well as from additional outside referral sources. Adolescents were asked to complete the Eating Disorder Examination (EDE) and the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-69) (Mulherin, 1998). Parents were asked to complete the adult version of the IGQ (IGQ-67), (O'Connor, Berry, Weiss, Bush, & Sampson, 1997) and the Family Environment Scale (FES), (Moos, 1974). It was expected that adolescents with anorexia nervosa would score higher on guilt than the historical comparison group of adolescents. For the self-hate subscale of the IGQ this proved to be the case. Adolescents with anorexia nervosa were significantly higher in self-hate than the comparison group of adolescents. It was anticipated that parents in this study would also score higher on guilt than the comparison group of adults. This hypothesis was not borne out. Parents did not display elevated guilt on any subscale. In fact, on survivor guilt, parents scored significantly lower than the historical sample of adults. It was also expected that a positive correlation would be found between female adolescent guilt and maternal guilt. Findings did not support this hypothesis. The final hypothesis predicted a positive correlation between familial conflict and adolescent self-hate and the results of this study supported this hypothesis.

The relationship between attachment patterns and guilt in the function of eating disorder symptoms: Can symptoms be proximity-seeking?
Catherine A. Orzolek-Kronner,
Smith College School for Social Work
2001
Abstract
The relationship among attachment quality, guilt, and the development of eating disorders was investigated with three groups of adolescent females from various settings. Forty-four individuals with eating disorders, 28 clinical controls, and 36 non-clinical controls were included in this study. Through the use of the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment and the Parental Attachment Questionnaire, it was found that both clinical groups demonstrated a weaker sense of attachment quality compared to their non-clinical counterparts. The Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire, derived from Weiss and Sampson's (1986) control mastery theory, was used to measure guilt among the groups. It was expected that adolescents with eating disorders would demonstrate more separation and survivor guilt; however, the eating disorders group showed significantly more self-hate guilt and only a marginally significant amount of survivor guilt. No significant differences were found in regards to separation guilt. Finally, this study expanded upon Bowlby's (1969, 1973, 1980) concept of proximity seeking, to offer a possible explanation of the function of eating disorder symptomatology. A new measure, the Proximity Seeking Scale was developed by this author and found that changes in both the physical and psychological proximity of those with eating disorders had changed since the identified onset of the disorder.

The measurement of sex role guilt in women: A pilot study
Evelyn Sida-Miccio
Wright Institute
2001
Abstract
The present study examines the relationship between sex roles and guilt in women. The purpose of this pilot study was to define, operationalize and measure the construct of sex role guilt which is based on an interpersonal theory of guilt. The psychometric properties of the Sex Role Guilt Questionnaire-33 (SRG-33), an instrument designed to measure the construct of sex role guilt, were evaluated to assess its adequacy. The SRG-33 was found to be internally consistent and data showed preliminary evidence for construct validity of the SRG-33. As predicted, the SRG-33 was significantly positively correlated with the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67). The SRG-33 was significantly negatively correlated with the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) masculinity scale. Contrary to predictions, the BSRI femininity scale was not correlated with the SRG-33. Demographic variables such as education level, income and religious orientation were analyzed, with no statistically significant findings.

The effects of a cognitive-behavioral prevention program on social skills and interpersonal guilt: A study of delinquent adolescents
Courtney Alexandra Smith
Wright Institute
1999
Abstract
This study examined the effects of a 12-week cognitive-behavioral prevention program on the social skills and interpersonal guilt of delinquent adolescents. 62 adolescents incarcerated at a juvenile detention center in a major metropolitan area were invited to participate in the study based on their date of incarceration, and the 56 adolescents who ultimately participated were randomly assigned to either the treatment or control group. The 12-week prevention program that was utilized was the Penn Prevention Program, which consists of a cognitive component and a social problem-solving component, and which was developed to teach at-risk children and adolescents a broad range of coping strategies in order to help them begin to gain a sense of mastery and competence when confronted with a variety of potentially adverse life events. The Penn Prevention Program has proven effective in significantly reducing depression and improving conduct among children and adolescents from the Philadelphia schools who were considered to be "at-risk" based on their depressive symptoms and perceptions of parental conflict. This study represented the first use of the Penn Prevention Program with incarcerated adolescents, and hypothesized that subjects participating in the prevention program would demonstrate greater positive changes in social skills and interpersonal guilt than subjects in the no treatment control group. In addition, it was expected that there would be a negative relationship between social skills and interpersonal guilt among all subjects at pre-test. Additional post-hoc analyses expLored potential relationships between demographic data, social skills, and interpersonal guilt. The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills for Youngsters (MESSY) was utilized to measure social skills, and the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire for Adolescents (IGQ-A) was utilized to measure levels of interpersonal guilt. No significant changes in social skills or interpersonal guilt were found as a result of treatment, yet significant relationships between demographic data, social skills, and interpersonal guilt were revealed. Findings provide important information regarding future research and treatment efforts with incarcerated youth.

Guilt, shame, self-image disparity and neurosis
Bonny Joy Shapin
Wright Institute
2000
Abstract
According to psychoanalytic theory, an excessive disparity between one's actual self-image and one's ideal self-image is associated with painful feelings of shame and guilt and with neurotic symptoms. In contrast, the cognitive-developmental perspective suggests that a greater self-image disparity is indicative of psychological and social adjustment. This study of 125 undergraduates examined the interrelationships among guilt, shame, self-image disparity and neurotic trends. Self-image disparity, as measured by the K-Z Self-Image Scale, was not found to be related to shame or to guilt. Self-image disparity was found to be significantly inversely correlated to neuroticism, as measured by the Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire (NSQ). A greater self-image disparity was found to be associated with Alpha Pride (pride in self), Beta Pride (pride in behavior) and Detachment/Unconcern on The Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA). These findings support the cognitive-developmental perspective which suggests a greater self-image disparity is related to psychological adjustment. Secondarily, this study investigated how shame and various subcategories of guilt relate to neurosis in a college population. As predicted, the Survivor Guilt subscale of the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ) and Trait Guilt subscale of the Guilt Inventory (GI) were found to have the strongest relationship to neuroticism (NSQ). Shame, as measured by the Test of Self-Conscious Affect was found to be less related to neuroticism than proneness to interpersonal guilt. These findings support the psychoanalytic emphasis on guilt as central to understanding psychopathology, particularly neurosis. Guilt may become maladaptive and inhibit normal development when individuals continue to feel guilt beyond immediate circumstances, feel overly responsible for the welfare of others and experience survivor guilt for not being able to save others. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.

The effects of a cognitive-behavioral prevention program on social skills and interpersonal guilt: A study of delinquent adolescents
Courtney Alexandra Smith
Wright Institute
1999
Abstract
This study examined the effects of a 12-week cognitive-behavioral prevention program on the social skills and interpersonal guilt of delinquent adolescents. 62 adolescents incarcerated at a juvenile detention center in a major metropolitan area were invited to participate in the study based on their date of incarceration, and the 56 adolescents who ultimately participated were randomly assigned to either the treatment or control group. The 12-week prevention program that was utilized was the Penn Prevention Program, which consists of a cognitive component and a social problem-solving component, and which was developed to teach at-risk children and adolescents a broad range of coping strategies in order to help them begin to gain a sense of mastery and competence when confronted with a variety of potentially adverse life events. The Penn Prevention Program has proven effective in significantly reducing depression and improving conduct among children and adolescents from the Philadelphia schools who were considered to be "at-risk" based on their depressive symptoms and perceptions of parental conflict. This study represented the first use of the Penn Prevention Program with incarcerated adolescents, and hypothesized that subjects participating in the prevention program would demonstrate greater positive changes in social skills and interpersonal guilt than subjects in the no treatment control group. In addition, it was expected that there would be a negative relationship between social skills and interpersonal guilt among all subjects at pre-test. Additional post-hoc analyses expLored potential relationships between demographic data, social skills, and interpersonal guilt. The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills for Youngsters (MESSY) was utilized to measure social skills, and the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire for Adolescents (IGQ-A) was utilized to measure levels of interpersonal guilt. No significant changes in social skills or interpersonal guilt were found as a result of treatment, yet significant relationships between demographic data, social skills, and interpersonal guilt were revealed. Findings provide important information regarding future research and treatment efforts with incarcerated youth.

Cultural values, ethnic identity, interpersonal guilt and shame: A comparison of Japanese-Americans and European-Americans
Suzanne Bri Asano
Wright Institute
1998
Abstract
The present study compared the cultural values, ethnic identity, and self-conscious emotions of 114 Japanese Americans and 110 European Americans from the metro areas of Denver, San Francisco, New York, and Chicago. The purpose of the research was to examine the effects that different cultural value orientations and levels of ethnic identification have on interpersonal guilt and shame. Five instruments were used in the study: the Individualism and Collectivism Scale (INDCOL), Interdependence/Independence Scale (II Scale), Ethnocultural Identity Behavioral Index (EIBI), Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ-67), and the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA). As predicted, Japanese Americans had significantly higher levels of collectivism (i.e., vertical collectivism) and interdependence (i.e., maintaining self-other bonds) than European Americans. Though no difference was predicted, European Americans had significantly higher levels of individualism and independence than Japanese Americans. Ethnic group differences expected for interpersonal guilt showed mixed results. When compared to European Americans, Japanese Americans had significantly higher levels of separation guilt and self-hate. Survivor guilt was higher but only approached significant levels. The ethnic group differences in survivor guilt and separation guilt appeared to be due to collectivism. Surprisingly, this investigation failed to show any ethnic group differences for shame. Collectivism and interdependence had a significant positive relationship to interpersonal guilt and shame. No relationship was found between ethnic identity and shame in either group. There was a significant positive relationship between ethnic identity and interpersonal guilt in the Japanese-American sample only. However, when regressed with collectivism, ethnic identity was no longer significant. Therefore, it was not ethnic identification per se that predicted survivor guilt and separation guilt, but the degree to which the ethnic identification implied that collectivism was important. Interpersonal guilt was not related to ethnic identity independent of the collectivistic values of the ethnic group with which they identified. In other words, what mattered most in predicting interpersonal guilt was identification with the group that was higher in collectivism.

Reliability and Validity of an adolescent version of interpersonal guilt questionaire
Kathleen Anne Mulherin
Wright Institute
1998
Abstract
The aim of this study is to establish reliability and validity for an adolescent version of the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire, a reliable and validated measure with four subscales of various kinds of guilt, including Survivor Guilt, Separation Guilt, Omnipotent Responsibility Guilt and Self-Hate. The adolescent version of the questionnaire (IGQ-Adol) consists of 69 statements, slightly revised for easier comprehension by adolescents, accompanied by a five-point Likert scale. The questionnaire was administered along with The Test of Self Conscious Affect, the Children's Attributional Style Questionnaire, the Children's Depression Inventory and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory to 330 high school students in two schools, one public, one private. The instrument was found to be reliable, with reliabilities similar to those found with the adult IGQ. Significant correlations were found between all four subscales of the IGQ-Adol and the validating measures. Separation Guilt, however, correlated only with the Guilt and Shame subscales of the Test of Self Conscious Affect for Adolescents (TOSCA-A). Additionally, neither Separation Guilt nor Omnipotent Responsibility Guilt correlated with the Children's Attributional Style Questionnaire (CASQ). There was a pattern of significant differences between ethnicities in the study, with Asian students scoring significantly higher than African-Americans and European-Americans on all measures except on the Children's Depression Inventory and the CASQ for Positive Events, and higher than students from Spanish-speaking families on Omnipotence Guilt, explanatory style for negative events and adaptive guilt on the TOSCA-A. Results suggest cultural differences may underlie these patterns. Gender differences appeared on several measures, with girls scoring significantly higher on Survivor Guilt, Omnipotent Responsibility Guilt, explanatory style for positive events, as well as on total explanatory style and on adaptive guilt.

Anger and depression among incarcerated juvenile deliquents: A pilot intervention
Jen Emily Tellier
California School of Professional Psychology
1998
Abstract
This study of incarcerated juvenile delinquents used a pre- and post-test approach for evaluating the efficacy of a 12-week cognitive-behavioral program in the reduction of anger and depression. Comparisons were made between treatment and control groups that totaled 62 adolescents. The treatment used was the Penn Prevention Program which has previously been found to prevent the development of depression among adolescents at-risk for depression. Instruments used included the Novaco Anger Scale, Child Depression Inventory, Jones Irrational Beliefs Test, and Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire - Adolescent. Study participants were expected to be moderately depressed. Instead, responses to the CDI at pre-test indicated low levels of depression. Levels of anger were significantly higher than those of the nearest age-related normative population of non-incarcerated college students. Irrational beliefs and guilt were comparable to those of non-incarcerated high school students. Though findings were not statistically significant, differences between the treatment group and control group were in the predicted direction suggesting a preventative pattern might be found with a larger sample size.

Trauma and recidivism to prison: What's guilt got to do with it?
Martha Sweezy
Smith College School of Social Work
1997
Abstract
This study investigated two hypotheses based on Control-Mastery theory: (1) women with histories of child and/or adult abuse (neglect, physical or sexual abuse, or any combination) who recidivate to prison have higher levels of maladaptive guilt than non-recidivists with a similar history; and, (2) women with abuse histories who recidivate are more symptomatic than women with similar histories who do not recidivate. Participants were 44 recidivists currently serving time, and a control group of 12 non-recidivists on parole. Six questionnaires were administered: the Biographical Information Questionnaire, the Child Abuse and Trauma scale, the Brief Symptom Inventory, the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire, the Guilt Inventory, and the Test of Self-Conscious Affect. Data were analyzed via factor analysis, followed by independent samples t-tests which examined contrasts between the means of the 4 factor derived composites. Both hypotheses were confirmed. Recidivators are both significantly more symptomatic and have significantly higher levels of maladaptive interpersonal guilt than non-recidivators. These results support the theoretical assertion that women who are more advanced in their recovery from trauma, and therefore have fewer symptoms and less maladaptive guilt, do not recidivate.

Multiple loss and grief in HIV positive and HIV negative gay men: Catastrophic survivor guilt, proneness to survivor guilt, and coping
Cida Jimenez-Sheppard
Wright Institute
1997
Abstract
The relationships among multiple bereavement, coping, grief, catastrophic survivor guilt, and proneness to survivor guilt was examined in a sample of HIV seropositive positive (n = 22) and seronegative (n = 29) gay men. All subjects were administered the Bereavement Index (Jimenez-Sheppard 1995); The Grief Experience Inventory (Sanders, Mauger, & Strong, 1985); the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (O'Connor, Berry, Weiss, Sampson & Bush 1994); AIDS Crisis Questionnaire (Jimenez-Sheppard, 1995), and The Ways of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman & Lazarus, 1988). This study found 4 main conclusions. First among both HIV positive and negative gay men, there was a positive correlation between proneness to survivor guilt and several dimensions of grief while statistically controlling for number, closeness and recency of losses. These grief dimensions are Despair, Guilt, Somatization, Social Isolation, and Atypical Response. Second, proneness to survivor guilt predicted levels of survivor guilt related specifically to the survival of people who died of AIDS (termed catastrophic survivor guilt), again controlling for number, closeness and recency of losses. Third, catastrophic survivor guilt contributes to the current grief experience, over and beyond proneness to survivor guilt, and number of recent losses. These grief dimensions are Denial, Anger, and Depersonalization. Fourth, HIV positive and HIV negative gay men who experienced more recent losses of close relationships used Confrontive and Self-Controlling Coping strategies. Additional analyses found that both HIV positive and HIV negative gay men experience similar levels of survivor guilt and catastrophic survivor guilt, and the loss of a close relationship was positively correlated with chronic manifestation of grief (Loss of Control, Rumination and Depersonalization). This study suggests that HIV positive and HIV negative gay men who experience survivor guilt and catastrophic survivor will experience deep expressions of grief.

Interpersonal guilt and eating disorder symptomatology in college women
Natasha Anne Vilas
Pacific Graduate School of Psychology
1996
Abstract
This study investigated the relationship between eating disorder symptoms, survivor guilt, and separation guilt in female college students who either volunteered or received course credit for their participation (N = 95). The study was correlational and employed the Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire (IGQ) to assess survivor guilt and separation guilt, the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA) as a measure of adaptive guilt, and shame, and the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) to assess eating disorder symptomatology. No significant relationship was found between eating disorder symptoms, and each: survivor guilt, and separation guilt. However, a significant relationship was found between eating disorder symptoms and self-hate guilt and eating disorder symptoms and shame.

The relationship between attributional style and interpersonal guilt.
Andrew R. Menaker
California School of Professional Psychology
1995
Abstract
The psychodynamically orientated control mastery theory, and the cognitive-behaviorally orientated theory of attributional style both explain psychopathology using beliefs as primary factors. In addition, control mastery theory empha sizes the role of pathogenic beliefs that give rise to excessive feelings of interpersonal guilt and shame. Control mastery theory (CMT) suggests that aspects of guilt related to a fear of harming others, such as survivor guilt and separation guilt, guilt from feeling overly responsible, omnipotent responsibility guilt, and an overall feeling of badness, self-hate guilt, are important in understanding psychopathology. Survivor guilt is particularly common and may be associated with a variety of pathologies (Weiss, 1986a, 1986b, 1994). The theory of attributional style suggests that people make internal self-statements in an effort to explain both the good and bad events that occur in their lives. These self-statements occur on a spectrum of pessimism/optimism. Pessimistic and optimistic self-statements fall into three dimensions: internal versus external, permanent versus temporary, and specific versus global (Seligman, 1990). The Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaire-67 (IGQ-67) is a recently developed instrument that measures the types of guilt emphasized in control mastery theory. The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ) is a widely used measure of attributional style. A pessimistic explanatory style, measured by the ASQ, and interpersonal guilt, measured by the IGQ-67, have both been empirically linked to depression. An association between pessimism and interpersonal guilt has been demonstrated on a small sample using an earlier version of the IGQ. The present correlational study used the following instruments: the ASQ, the IGQ-67, the Test of Self-Conscious Affect (TOSCA), which measures shame, (adaptive) guilt, externalization, detachment, characterological pride, and behavior related pride, and the Guilt Inventory (GI), which measures state guilt, trait guilt, and moral standards. These four instruments along with a demographic questionnaire were administered to a nonclinical sample of college students (n = 71). The hypotheses of the present study predicted a significant relationship between a pessimistic style and interpersonal guilt, particularly survivor guilt. The results of the present study supported the central hypothesis that a pessimistic style is related to survivor guilt . Pessimism was also shown to be related to the other subtypes of guilt. In addition, guilt was shown to be more consistently related to attributional style for good events as opposed to bad events. The implications of the results are discussed and suggestions for future research are made.

Other Studies

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adult women: Personality and neurotransmitters as measured by the Neurotransmitter Attributes Questionnaire
Margaret Ann Schiltz
Wright Institute
2014
Abstract
This study compares adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) only and ADHD with comorbid psychopathology established by self-diagnosis on the dopaminergic and serotonergic circuits as measured by subscales of the Neurotransmitter Attributes Questionnaire (NAQ). The two groups were also compared on the big five personality factors, as measured by the Brief Big Five Inventory (BFI). In addition, standardized measures of common mental disorders were correlated with one another and with the dopamine and serotonin subscales of the NAQ, to assess the validity of the NAQ subscales.

Participants included 1,287 adults (994 female, 286 male) ranging in age from 18 to 84 who completed an anonymous online survey. Ninety-five ADHD participants (76 females, 19 males) were identified and grouped into ADHD-only (42) and ADHD-dual (53) diagnoses. Significant evidence of dopaminergic dysfunction was found in both ADHD groups. Significantly higher serotonergic dysfunction was found in the ADHD group with comorbid disorders when compared to ADHD only; and in both ADHD groups when compared to No Diagnosis controls. Gender differences in serotonergic dysfunction and levels of comorbidity were not found within the ADHD groups.

Personality profiles of ADHD adults were compared to 857 healthy controls. Cluster analysis of the Big Five traits yielded three profiles: Resilient, Overcontrolled, and Undercontrolled. Both groups of ADHD participants were significantly Undercontrolled and demonstrated higher levels of dopaminergic dysfunction. The ADHD group with comorbid disorders was significantly lower in Resilience when compared to the ADHD-only group.

This study supported the validity of the NAQ subscales; the dopamine subscale significantly predicted high scores on the standardized measure of ADHD, even in the presence of significant serotonergic dysfunction. Contrary to the hypothesis and common clinical beliefs, no significant differences were found between males and females in both ADHD groups. The use of latent personality profile analysis with ADHD adults supports additional research into the Undercontrolled profile as a possible fit for adults with ADHD.

Discrepancy from the ideal: An exploratory study of the associations between body image and social status.
Alexandria Leedy
Wright Institute
2006
Abstract
This investigation examined relationships between body image and social status measures in a non-clinical population. The Body-Image Ideal Questionnaire (Cash & Szymanski, 1995), MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (Adler, Epel, Castellazzo, & Ickovics, 2000), and Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977) were administered to 105 participants, 57 women and 48 men. Significant negative correlations were found between body image and social status measures. Women were found to have poorer body image than men, however no significant differences were found between men and women's body image and status correlations. This study suggests that body image, for particular body characteristics, is related to social status, and that men's body image is as related to measures of status as women's. Evolutionary perspectives and areas of future research are discussed.

Positive psychology and psychotherapists
Charlotte Tilson
Wright Institute
2006
Abstract
Positive psychology is a new-yet-old subfield of clinical psychology and psychological science highly relevant to the practice of psychotherapy. Psychotherapy training, literature and lore have traditionally been characterized by a negative bias. The negative bias may impact psychotherapists' beliefs, and result in errors in clinical judgment and practice. This review of theory, research and applications in the field of positive psychology (a) provides an analysis of the relationship between positive psychology and the education, beliefs and practices of psychotherapists in order to generate knowledge relevant to the development of the profession, (b) considers potential benefits and/or dangers to the profession with bringing positive psychology formally into curricula, training and professional practice, and (c) identifies areas for future empirical study. Integration of positive psychology into graduate training programs is recommended as a means of expanding the role of clinicians into prevention and health promotion as well as treatment of illness, thereby potentially increasing well-being at a societal level.

Pilot study of a new hospital suicide risk assessment measure
Emily Diamond
Wright Institute
2004
Abstract
The Suicide Lethality Screening Tool (SLST) is a new organizational tool designed for this study. It was developed to facilitate psychiatric hospital staff's determination of a patient's level of suicide risk, which would then lead directly to one of seven interventions regarding necessary level of patient supervision. Another aim was to create a tool to be used with patients with a variety of diagnoses such as schizophrenia, mood disorders, dual diagnoses, and minor memory or cognitive losses. It was also intended to provide a centralized location for relevant history, current stressors, and level of functioning of the patient. The geropsychiatric unit where it was created and piloted experienced a suicide in 2000, and two serious suicide attempts in 1999. The SLST's 18 items, graded on a scale from 03, were drawn from clinical experience and known risk factors. The SLST was administered to seventy-four psychiatrically hospitalized adults, (males = 23, females = 40, missing data = 11). The patients ranged from 1891 years (average female = 71.4 years, average male = 66.6 years). Fifty-nine participants were assessed upon admission to a geropsychiatric unit. The SLST was administered voluntarily to the remaining 15 participants. Participants also completed the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS) and the Beck Scale for Suicide Ideation (BSS). These measures have been found to be a strong indicator of eventual suicide, and current scope and intensity of suicidality of a patient, respectively. The SLST and the BSS had a correlation of 0.66 (p < 0.01) when each BSS item was scored. A non-significant correlation (0.34) was found between the SLST and BHS. The Rasch partial credit modeling revealed that all but one item (not scored on a Likert scale) contribute to the linear scale of suicide risk. In the two years since its routine use, there have been no attempts or completed suicides at the unit where it was piloted.

A dose-response study of control mastery therapy
Jane Leslie Weisbin
Wright Institute
2003
Abstract
Student therapists are rarely trained to monitor their own treatment effectiveness or to integrate treatment evaluation methods into their practices. However, psychotherapists and students therapists whose practices are guided by Control Mastery Theory have training to think empirically about clinical hypotheses and to use feedback from their patients to assess the success or failure of interventions and of the treatment. Control Mastery research literature has a rich history exploring process-outcome relationships in closely-examined single-case studies. While the efficacy of Control Mastery Therapy has not been tested by randomized clinical trials and therefore is not yet considered an empirically supported therapy, it is a good candidate for effectiveness research. In this study, Control Mastery student therapists collected weekly data from eleven patients in a low-fee outpatient clinic using a standardized outcome measure, the OQ-45.2 (Lambert et al., 1996) and compared that data with that gathered from previous dose-response studies tracking other types of therapy in various settings. Because of the small sample size of this study (N = 11), only one patient reached clinically significant change (recovery) but this study did find that 50% of patients who began treatment in the dysfunctional range reliably improved, and survival analysis suggested that 25% of patients beginning treatment in the dysfunctional range would reliably improve after 14 sessions, 50% after 19 sessions, and 75% after 30 sessions. These figures are not statistically significant, but do compare favorably with prior dose-response literature, though they lean toward the higher number of sessions required. Level of distress at intake was found to be positively correlated with time to improvement, which is also corroborated in several dose-response studies.

Sexual relationships between supervisors and supervisees during psychology graduate training
Leslie Wilson Caldwell
Wright Institute
2002
Abstract
Although emotional and/or physical attraction is a normal response in human relationships, there are ethical guidelines warning against sexual intimacy between supervisors and supervisees. Three hundred seventy-six APA members who graduated from doctoral level clinical and counseling psychology training programs participated in a study on the prevalence of sexual intimacy between supervisors and supervisees during graduate training, and their attitudes concerning the role of consent and coercion within these relationships. The study also inquired about the subject's academic training pertaining to sexual relationships between supervisors and supervisees, and the prevalence of intense emotional and/or sexual attraction between student and supervisor that is neither talked about nor acted on. The survey attained a 35% response rate. While 1% of the male respondents reported sexual contact with an educator, 9.8% of the female respondents reported having had such contact. The typical liaison was a 40 year old married male educator with a 28 year old single female student. Thirty-seven percent of these sexual relationships were with supervisors and occurred most frequently during the first two years of graduate training. Virtually all respondents indicated sexual contact between students and educators who have a working relationship to be ethically inappropriate and harmful to the working relationship, and the majority believed student volition to be partially voluntary/partially coerced. Once these working relationships terminated, there was a significant difference in attitudes between those that did and did not experience such liaisons with the former finding these relationships neither appropriate nor inappropriate, and the later inappropriate and harmful. Sixty-six percent of respondents report receiving no education in the area of sexual ethics; however, 63% recall informal discussions with peers regarding this subject. While in training, 18% of the respondents indicated they had experienced intense emotional and/or sexual attraction towards an educator, while 21% experienced an educator's attraction towards them. Finally, of the 318 subjects who have been in the role of an educator/supervisor, 4% admit to sexual contact with a student, while 27% have experienced intense emotional and/or physical attraction towards a student.

A survey of psychologists' attitudes, opinions, and clinical experiences with animal abuse
Pauline Nelson
Wright Institute
2002
Abstract
Previous literature suggests a link between interpersonal violence and violence against other species. It is common for companion animals to be victims of domestic violence, and some individuals who commit violent criminal acts have histories of cruelty towards other species. Non-human animals occupy a position of less power in our culture as do children. Psychologists are not allowed to report animal abuse as they are mandated to report child abuse. Two hundred and three U.S. psychologists completed surveys about their attitudes towards animal abuse, their experiences treating clients who abuse animals, and their opinions toward the possibility of changing the law and ethics code to include the right to report animal abuse. Psychologists believe that the “link” between violence towards humans and other species exists. Although 94% of psychologists believed animal abuse to be connected to other behavior disturbances, only 14% screen for this behavior. More than half of psychologists (55%) favored the right to report animal abuse. Female psychologists were significantly more likely to favor of the right to report animal abuse. Results of analysis of 69 cases of animal abuse revealed the majority of perpetrators to be child and adolescent males. Diagnoses most often indicated fell under DSM-IV categories of Disorders Usually Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood, or Adolescence, and Mood Disorders. The majority of cases (71%) involved “direct physical violence with intent to harm an animal”. Species most often targeted were cats and dogs. Animals often lived in the same home as the perpetrator or were identified as a “pet” of the perpetrator. In slightly less than half of cases other forms of domestic violence were present in the home, and in more than half of them violence was directed against either both female spouses and child(ren), or child(ren) only. Results are consistent with prior findings about the nature and context of animal abuse. Results suggest that although psychologists recognize the “link” between interpersonal violence and violence against other species, they are divided about allowing psychologists to report animal abuse.

The relationship between gender traits, sex role egalitarian attitudes, attachment styles, and life satisfaction
Joseph Martin Smith
Wright Institute
1998
Abstract
This study examined the relationships between gender traits, egalitarian sex-role attitudes, attachment styles, and life satisfaction. It was hypothesized that androgyny would be associated with a secure attachment style, greater overall life satisfaction, and greater satisfaction in love relationships. It was also hypothesized that masculinity would be associated with an avoidant attachment style, and that femininity would be associated with an anxious/ambivalent attachment style, with both being associated with less satisfaction in love relationships. It was believed that an egalitarian sex-role attitude would also be associated with a secure attachment style and greater life satisfaction. Finally, it was expected that a secure attachment style would be associated with greater overall life satisfaction, greater satisfaction in love relationships, and that the converse would be true for the less secure attachment styles. Post-hoc analyses explored differences between men and women on each of the measures, and the relationship between gender traits and gender attitudes. The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) was utilized to measure gender traits, the Sex-Role Egalitarian Scale (SRES) was utilized to assess gender attitudes, the Adult Attachment Scale-Revised (AAS-R) was utilized to measure adult attachment styles, and the Quality of Life Inventory (QOLI) was utilized to assess levels of life satisfaction. Volunteer subjects included 112 college students recruited from two universities--one located in the midwest, and one in the southeast. A number of this study's hypotheses were supported. Androgyny was associated with dimensions of the secure attachment style, and with overall life satisfaction. Additionally, dimensions of the secure attachment style were related to greater levels of overall life satisfaction and greater levels of satisfaction in love relationships. Sex-role Egalitarianism was not associated with attachment styles, with satisfaction in love relationships, or with overall life satisfaction. Results of the post-hoc analyses are reported, the implications of the findings of this study are discussed, and recommendations for future research are made.

The Relationship Between Religion, Spirituality, and Guilt
Ian Middelkamp
University of Western Ontario
2008
Abstract
This study focused on strengthening earlier research concerning religion and guilt. 28 participants, (15 female, 13 male) from the University of Western Ontario filled out religious orientation questionnaires discerning religious, spiritual, or non-spiritual/non-religious orientations, and Interpersonal Guilt Questionnaires (IGQ-67). The expected outcome was that religious participants would have the highest levels of guilt, followed by the spiritually oriented, while the non-religious/non-spiritual participants would have the lowest levels. Results supported that non-spiritual, non-religious individuals had lowest levels of guilt, but results were non-significant (F (2, 25) = 3.197, p<.05). The failure of the study to find significance was assumed the result of inadequate sample size leading to high variability due to error.